인지 발달: 피아제의 네 가지 단계 살펴보기

유전과 환경의 영향을 받는 인지 발달은 피아제의 네 단계를 거치며 아이의 사고와 학습을 형성합니다.

### 피아제의 인지 발달 이론
* 👶 피아제의 인지 발달 이론은 아이들이 성장하면서 **어떻게 생각하고, 알고, 기억하고, 소통하는 법**을 배우는지 설명합니다.
* 📈 피아제에 따르면 아이들은 **감각운동기, 전조작기, 구체적 조작기, 형식적 조작기**의 일련의 단계를 거치며 발달합니다.
* 🧠 감각 운동 단계(출생~만 2세)의 아기는 **감각과 행동을 통해 세상을 탐색**하고 사물에 대한 영속성을 발달시킵니다.
* 👦 수술 전 단계(2~7세)의 아이들은 **자기중심적**이고, **보존과 가역성에 어려움**을 겪으며, **마음의 이론이 발달**하기 시작합니다.
* 🧒 구체적 조작 단계(7~12세)에 접어든 아이들은 **구체적인 사건에 대해 논리적으로 사고**하고 집중력을 극복합니다.
* 👩 형식적 조작 단계(12세 이상)에서는 **추상적 사고, 문제 해결, 가설적 추론**이 발달합니다.
* 🌍 피아제의 이론은 지나치게 단순화되고 너무 엄격하다는 비판을 받기도 했지만, **어린이는 어른과 다르게 생각**한다는 것을 이해하는 토대를 마련했습니다.

Even though you can't see me, you know that
I am here talking to you. And I can probably persuade you that this container of water
and this container of water have the same amount of water, which they do, even though
they don't look like they do. And you'll see I left my anglerfish behind
me. If someone were to move it without my knowing, you'd rightly expect me to look for
it first where I originally left it. ...Nnnugh!! You can figure out all these things because
you are far down the path of cognitive development. Your parents will be proud. But there was
a time in your life, in all our lives, when simple concepts like these were totally baffling. Of course, lots of things influence how your
mind and its relationship with the world grows over time. Both our genetics and our environment begin
to affect our development long before we're even born, and they continue to influence
our learning until the day we die.

And even though we're born with nearly the same number of brain cells, we'll ever have, our complete set of brain hardware takes years to solidify as our neural networks grow more complex. The study of our physical changes, cognitive, social, and emotional changes throughout our whole lives - from prenatal to preteen to post-retirement - is called developmental psychology. It's how we grow into who we are. And it begins with the growth of knowledge itself: the process by which you mature into the anglerfish-tracking, water-beaker-estimating, peekaboo-master that you are today. [Intro] As we age, we tend to follow a sequence of changes in behavior and appearance called maturation. Everyone is affected differently by their personal experience, of course, but we all share inherent genetic growth tendencies. We roll over before we sit, we sit before stand, and we stand before we walk, and we walk before we break dance. The same thing applies to our cognitive development - how

we learn to think, know, remember, and communicate.
And if you're gonna talk about cognitive development, you gotta start with Jean Piaget, developmental
psychologist extraordinaire. Piaget was from Switzerland where he was kind
of a wunderkind and got his PhD in zoology in 1918, began dabbling in Freud psychoanalysis.
After graduation, he headed to France to work on a method for testing children's aptitudes
and abilities. While administering these tests, Piaget began to notice how younger kids kept
giving wrong answers to certain questions. He became fascinated by the fact that children
of a certain age consistently made particular mistakes that older kids and adults didn't.
Like the younger kids would have a really hard time understanding the idea I just showed
you, that this container has the same amount of water in it as in this container. Or that
this row of coins has the same number as this row. While others might have dismissed these as
childish mistakes, Piaget theorized that it

was because humans go through specific stages
of cognitive development and intellectual progression. His main game was asking 'How
does knowledge grow?' He proposed that as we grow and struggle to
make sense of our experiences, we create schemas, or mental frameworks that help interpret information. Schemas are like concepts, ranging from physical
things like birds and hats and eye patches to abstract ideas like friendship and betrayal. And we're constantly striving for cognitive
equilibrium, or harmony, between our thought processes and our environments, which are
always giving us new things to think about and adjust to. Piaget proposed that we adapt to new experiences
through two processes that are closely related - assimilation and accommodation. When we assimilate new experiences, we interpret
them in terms of our existing schemas. So if a toddler has never seen a deer but has
a schema for a horse, she may call the first deer she sees a horsey. She wants to fit it
within her understanding.

But with more interactions in the world, our minds expand to accommodate or adjust to new experiences. So soon enough, that kid realizes that deer aren't just horses, and she adjusts her schema. From there, she'll be able to tell the difference between Bambi and Black Beauty in no time. But our knowledge base grows in ways that are much more complex than just those two steps, and Piaget knew that. He went on to devise a four-stage theory of cognitive development that described how we learn in different phases of our lives. He called stage one the sensorimotor stage, which begins at birth and continues on to about age two. This is the time when babies experience the world through their senses and actions: touching and grabbing and looking and hearing, and putting things in their mouth. From what I can tell, mostly just putting things in their mouth. Younger babies may get scared around strangers, seem to live only in the present, and have

to see something to know it exists. This makes
them very easy to trick, if you're into that - I mean if you have any experience with babies,
just think about this: toss a blanket over a six-month-old's pacifier and they think
it vanished. They lack object permanence, the awareness
that things still exist when they're out of sight. And yet, we develop so quickly that
just a month or two later that baby already understands better that objects and people
don't disappear just because they're hidden. Object permanence, in Piaget's view, was one
of the major achievements of the sensorimotor stage. The second of Piaget's phases of development
is the 'preoperational stage,' and he believed it began around age two and carried on through
age six or seven. The thing about kids of this age is that it's all about them. The
preoperational stage is characterized by 'egocentrism.'

which drives most of what a child thinks and
says. Kids have a hard time imagining another person's
point of view, so much so that when I was a kid, if you asked me if I had a brother,
I'd say, 'sure, John', but if you asked me if John had a brother, I'd say, 'Nah, I don't
think so.' Egocentrism, of course, never fully disappears,
even in adults who understand how the whole sibling thing works. The preoperational stage is also marked by
a child's ability to mentally represent objects and events with words and images and pretend
plays in their imagination. They're big into animism now and believe their favorite bunny,
Batman, or stuffed anglerfish has feelings and opinions and possibly the intent to kiss
or kill you when you're asleep - depending on how they're feeling. Still plenty of kinks to work out. Piaget suggests that early in this stage,
kids don't yet understand the concept of conservation.

- like how 500 milliliters is the same as
500 milliliters, no matter what container it's in. They can also struggle with the notion of
reversibility. It's hard for them to mentally reverse the process by which a ball of clay
smashed flat can be rolled back into a ball. It's a concept that takes some time to understand. And these challenges both have to do with
'Centration' - a child's tendency to fixate on just one aspect of a problem or object
- like the shape of the container or the clay. But during the second half of stage two, things
begin to blossom. Kids start forming their theory of mind or ability to understand other
people's feelings, thoughts, and perceptions - as well as their own - and also how to predict
behavior... like remember when my anglerfish got moved when I wasn't looking? A child at
this stage will begin to realize that while she knows that the fish is in a new place,
I don't know it was moved, so when I start

to look for it, she'll expect me to look where
it originally was and not where it was moved to. These new people skills have all kinds of
awesome applications, from trying to convince your parents to PLEASE GIVE ME THAT EXTRA
COOKIE I SO DESPERATELY NEED! to showing empathy, which is better, and offering comfort
to others when they seem sad. Piaget called the third stage of development
- beginning around age six or seven and lasting until eleven or twelve - the 'Concrete Operational
Stage'. Kids are starting to think logically about concrete events that they've actually
experienced. And unlike children in the earlier phase, getting hung up on issues of centration,
kids in this stage experience 'decentration', and become able to see beyond just one aspect
of an object or problem. So now, problems with reversibility and conservation
just cease to be problems. And the last of Piaget's four stages is the 'Formal Operational
Stage', which starts at about twelve and carries

us through the rest of our lives. By now,
our reasoning is expanding to include more abstract thinking, problem solving, and hypothetical
questions. Now Piaget's four-stage model has been criticized
for oversimplifying things and for being too rigid in how it classifies certain abilities
by age. Today, for example, researchers have detected these phases at earlier ages than
Piaget ever did - sometimes way earlier - like some types of object permanence have been
observed in three-month-olds. Psychologists also see development as more
of a continuous process rather than a series of stepping stones. But even Piaget understood
that his stages weren't as fixed as he made them sound. And he wasn't the only guy on the block talking
about development. For instance, his contemporary, Belarussian psychologist Lev Vygotsky, had
some ideas of his own. While Piaget focused on how a kid's mind grows by interacting with
his physical environment, Vygotsky emphasized

how early development occurs through parental
instruction and interaction with social environments. He believed less in set stages and more in
the idea that care-giver adults provide a sort of scaffolding that helps children climb
to higher levels of thinking and learning. Vgotsky put a lot of emphasis on language
as a way of assigning meaning to things, and he also suggested that the ways kids develop
might actually vary across cultures. In the end, there's room for lots of different
theories here, but perhaps Piaget's greatest achievement was developing theoretical depth
in the concept that kids actually think very differently than adults. This fact has helped a lot of parents and
teachers, and his work spurred a new era of research in the field. While Piaget wasn't
the only developmentalist, or even the first, he's definitely one of the most influential,
and remains relevant to this day. As the brain and mind develop in children,
so too do their social, emotional, and moral

behavior. How a child is raised and cared
for can have a profound impact on their personality later in life, which is something we'll look
at next week. This week, though, you learned how we use
schemas, assimilation, and accommodation to make sense of the world around us, and about
Piaget's four-stage theory of cognitive development, including sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete
operational, and formal operational periods, and about Vygotsky's theory of scaffolding. Thanks for watching, especially to all of
our Subbable subscribers - you are the reason that we can do this, thank you. If you would
like to sponsor an episode of Crash Course, or even be animated into an upcoming episode,
just go to subbable.com. This episode was written by Kathleen Yale,
edited by Blake de Pastino, and our consultant is Dr. Ranjit Bhagwat. Our director and editor
is Nicholas Jenkins, the script supervisor

is Michael Aranda, who is also our sound designer, and the graphics team is Thought Cafe.

The Growth of Knowledge: Crash Course Psychology #18

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인간의 인지 발달은 출생 전부터 죽을 때까지 유전과 환경의 영향을 모두 받습니다.

발달 심리학은 전 생애에 걸친 신체적, 인지적, 사회적, 정서적 변화를 연구하는 학문입니다.

저명한 발달 심리학자인 장 피아제는 특정 연령대의 아이들이 저지르는 일관된 실수에 매료되어 인지 발달에 관한 획기적인 이론을 세웠습니다.

피아제의 이론은 인간이 스키마 생성을 통해 인지 능력을 발달시키는 방식에 초점을 맞추고 있습니다.

이 과정에는 새로운 경험을 기존 스키마에 맞추는 동화와 이러한 스키마를 조정하고 확장하는 수용을 통해 생각과 환경 사이의 균형을 찾는 과정이 포함됩니다.

피아제의 이론은 또한 인지 발달의 네 단계를 감각 운동기, 전조작기, 구체적 조작기, 형식적 조작기로 구분하고 각 단계마다 고유한 특징과 이정표가 있다고 설명합니다.

수술 전 단계의 아이들은 자기중심적인 성향을 가지고 있으며 보존과 가역성과 같은 개념에 어려움을 겪습니다.

하지만 마음 이론과 다른 사람의 감정과 생각을 이해하는 능력이 발달하기 시작합니다.

구체적인 운영 단계에서는 아이들이 구체적인 사건에 대해 논리적으로 사고하기 시작하고, 집중의 문제를 극복하고 분산을 경험합니다.

12세 무렵부터 시작되는 공식적인 조작 단계는 아이들이 추상적 사고와 가설 테스트를 개발하기 시작하는 단계입니다.

피아제의 아동 발달 이론에 대한 비판과 대안적 관점

피아제의 4단계 모델은 연령별 능력을 지나치게 단순화하고 엄격하게 분류한다는 비판을 받아왔습니다.

연구자들은 피아제보다 더 이른 나이에 발달 단계를 관찰하여 피아제의 고정된 단계에 이의를 제기했습니다.

피아제와 동시대인 레프 비고츠키는 문화적 다양성을 강조하면서 아동 발달에서 부모의 교육, 사회적 상호작용, 언어의 역할을 강조하는 대안 이론을 제안했습니다.

비판에도 불구하고 피아제는 아동의 사고와 학습 방식의 차이를 이해하는 데 큰 영향을 미쳤으며, 이 분야의 추가 연구를 촉발시켰습니다.

자녀 양육이 성격 발달에 미치는 영향

어린 시절의 양육은 이후 성격 발달에 큰 영향을 미칩니다.

스키마, 동화, 적응은 피아제의 4단계 인지 발달 이론과 함께 세상을 이해하는 데 사용됩니다.

비고츠키의 비계 이론도 이 과정의 핵심 개념입니다.