종교개혁: 인쇄술이 종교 개혁에 미친 영향

존 위클리프와 마틴 루터의 교황 비판은 종교 개혁을 촉발했고, 루터는 인쇄술의 발명으로 혜택을 받았습니다.

### 존 위클리프와 마틴 루터가 종교 개혁에 미친 영향
* 🔍  존 위클리프는 마틴 루터보다 앞서 교황과 교회를 비판하고 성경 해석을 바탕으로 면죄부와 종교적 신념에 이의를 제기했습니다.
* 📰  인쇄기의 발명은 마르틴 루터의 사상이 확산되고 이후 종교 개혁이 일어나면서 교황청과의 광범위한 논쟁과 대립을 불러일으키는 데 결정적인 역할을 했습니다.
* 💡  마르틴 루터는 면죄부 판매에 대한 공개적인 비판과 교황청에 대한 신학적 논쟁으로 파문당하고 종교개혁이 정치적, 종교적 이슈로 부상하게 됩니다.
* 📜  루터는 인쇄된 전단지를 전략적으로 사용하여 자신의 사상을 전달하고 오직 은혜로만 구원받을 수 있다고 주장하며 교황의 권위에 도전하여 파문당하고 프레데릭 3세의 보호를 받게 됩니다.
* ⚖️  루터는 황제 찰스 5세와의 대결에서 양심의 자유의 시작을 알렸고, 프레데릭 3세의 지원으로 감옥에서 보호를 받으며 종교개혁에 계속 영향을 미쳤어요.

Commonly referred to as the split between Catholicism and Protestantism, the sale of indulgences by the Pope and Martin Luther's 95 theses come to mind first. However, criticism of the Pope's corruption actually existed before Luther. For example, in the mid-14th century, theologian John Wycliffe in England emerged to criticize the corruption of the Pope and the church. Furthermore, he not only criticized the corruption of individuals but also challenged the indulgences and relics, and the belief at the time that bread and wine in the Eucharist physically transform into the body and blood of Jesus. What was significant about his critique of the contemporary teachings was that there was no basis for it in the Bible. Criticisms of the Pope based on this reasoning would later be inherited by Martin Luther, who is the first figure that comes to mind when religious reform is mentioned.

So, the individual religious reforms of Catholicism, Protestantism, and each religion did not suddenly happen overnight, but rather exploded from accumulated dissatisfaction with the church for thousands of years. However, when we think of the individual religious reforms that began to split Catholicism, Protestantism, and each religion, it is generally not John Wycliffe but Martin Luther who comes to mind first. What is the reason for this? One crucial factor lies in a technological advancement that occurred between Wycliffe, who emerged in the mid-14th century, and Luther, who was active in the early 16th century. The decisive role was played by the invention of metal movable type printing press in Europe by Gutenberg. Before Gutenberg, those who criticized the Pope and the church, no matter how sharp their logic was, could not spread their ideas quickly and on a large scale to the world.

Due to the absence of a method, the pope was able to relatively easily manage those who expressed dissatisfaction with him. When Wycliffe criticized the pope at the age of 4, the pope pointed out Wycliffe's arguments in two ways, but did not bring Wycliffe himself to trial. Concerned that a debate would arise if Wycliffe was put on trial, it was feared that factions sympathetic to him would emerge. Therefore, Wycliffe was quietly treated as a heretic only in 1415, after his death. However, unlike the case of Wycliffe, when Martin Luther, a professor of theology at the University of Wittenberg, published the 95 Theses in 1517, the pope could no longer handle the matter quietly. What made Luther, who was just a professor, openly criticize the papacy of his time? As widely known,

The sale of indulgences or penance bulbs from the Vatican played a decisive role. At that time, a figure named Albrecht von Brandenburg was already serving as the Archbishop of Magdeburg but was not satisfied with this position. He also aimed to acquire the position of Archbishop of Mainz simultaneously. However, since it was not acceptable for one person to hold multiple Archbishop positions according to the principles of the Vatican, he needed to prepare money to obtain special permission from the Pope. Furthermore, at that time, Pope Leo X was in urgent need of money for the construction of St. Peter's Basilica, which was being carried out by the Vatican. Therefore, they entered into a kind of transaction. According to the transaction, Albrecht von Brandenburg, who had accumulated vast wealth in the Holy Roman Empire region, borrowed money from the Fugger family and paid it to the Pope in exchange for permission.

In the region he was responsible for, he obtained the right to sell indulgences. Half of the profits from selling indulgences were sent back to the Pope, and the remaining half was used to build St. Peter's Basilica. It's easy to imagine that a young scholar like Luther, who had become a doctor of theology five years earlier and had been teaching students about interpreting the Bible, would be angry watching such events unfold. Upon hearing the news of indulgence sales, Luther publicly wrote a letter to Albert of Brandenburg on October 31, 1517. In this letter, he demanded an academic debate to end the erroneous practice of selling indulgences and attached his 95 theses as evidence at the end of the letter. On the same year, Luther publicly posted the 95 theses at the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg.

The story of Luther nailing the 95 theses to the church door is widely known, but it has not been definitively proven whether Luther actually posted these 95 refutations of theses publicly. On the other hand, after receiving a letter from Albrecht von Brandenburg, Muck did not directly inform the church and did not reply to Luther. Starting from not receiving a reply, he sent the contents of the 95 refutations of theses to contemporary intellectuals by letter. The contents of this letter quickly spread not only to those who received the letter directly due to the development of printing technology but also to people living throughout Germany today. The core of the explosive social debate sparked by Luther's 95 theses lies in the authority of the Pope related to the Bible. The Papacy claimed the right to interpret the Bible, while Luther argued that the Papacy should follow the content of the Bible itself.

It was argued that the Pope claimed that one should not criticize the unused content of the Bible. Upon hearing the news that Luther made such a claim, the Pope claimed that Luther's behavior itself was heretical, wishing to send Luther to Rome. If Luther had not been sent to Rome from that point on, the course of history would have been significantly different. Fortunately, Prince Frederick, who ruled the region where Luther was active, showed Luther. Just as a plant enters its third year, he showed great interest in culture and art, but at the same time, he was politically conflicted with the Pope over the election of the next emperor. Here, as we can see, the religious reform was already becoming a political issue beyond a simple issue of doctrine or religion. When Frederick III continued to refuse to hand Luther over to Rome, the Pope.

In 1518, after the Augsburg Confession in Incheon, Kai Ta, who presented Tom Aska's request to Luther, urged Luther to handle his position. It was stated that if Luther did not follow this, he could be excommunicated. However, Luther, who met Kai Ta, did not retract his criticism of the sale of indulgences, insisting that it was essential to focus on the content of the Bible rather than the Pope. Kai Ta, after confirming Luther's position, reportedly left a response suggesting that they create a new doctrine together. This demonstrates how unacceptable Luther's claims were from the Pope's perspective. Kai Ta, after confirming the irreconcilable differences in positions, demanded that Luther be handed over to PDA III once again, but Luther's protector, the place sparrow, covered Kai Ta's demands. On the other hand, he sought to widely publicize his own position.

To utilize the advancement of printing, in 1520, he actively published three works in the format of printed leaflets. Among them, the first was aimed at the nobility of the Holy Roman Empire, the second at the monks, and the third targeted the general public. By adjusting the content and format to the expected readers' level, he demonstrated that Luther was not a naive intellectual who simply believed people would accept his arguments because he thought he was right. On the contrary, he strategically and systematically acted to effectively communicate his position. Through his explosive writings, Luther vehemently advocated for sola gratia, sola fide, sola scriptura - salvation by God's grace alone, forgiveness through faith alone, and worship through faith alone - to the extent that it was called the pamphlet wars.

It is natural that the Pope could not accept the idea that only the Bible holds authority. When Luther continued to challenge the Pope directly, on June 15, 1520, the Pope announced a decree that Luther would be investigated if he did not publicly retract his position within 60 days. However, as the 60-day period expired, Luther not only burned the Pope's decree as if in defiance but also criticized the Pope by calling him an enemy of Christ. Eventually, the Pope excommunicated Luther. However, a problem arose here. According to the laws at that time, anyone who was excommunicated by the Pope was to be banished from the Holy Roman Empire. The person banished by the Empire was legally deprived of all rights, and even if someone killed the banished person, the killer would not be punished unless they had been sentenced to death. It was a harsh punishment that completely stripped the individual of social protection for those who were banished in the direction of the Empire.

However, the problem is that, in addition to the three players mentioned earlier, some rulers of the Holy Roman Empire opposed it. Therefore, in order to clearly resolve the issue of Luther's imperial protection, in 1521, after a month, Luther appeared alone in front of Charles V, who was the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. For this, Charles V, who was the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, was in a state where he had to ensure Luther's safety to some extent in advance. On April 17th, finally facing Luther in front of him, Charles V showed Luther all the writings he had written so far and asked two questions: whether he was the author of those writings and whether he was willing to retract the claims contained in them. In a crucial moment that would determine his future, Luther answered the first question positively and asked for time to think until the next day for the second question.

He said that he would not consider defending his own claims unless the contents of his writings were not repeated through the Bible the next day after spending a night of agony. He reveals his position, saying, Here I stand, I can do no other, help me God. Some scholars view this as the beginning of freedom of conscience or freedom of belief in a modern Western sense. Once unable to abandon beliefs he deemed right, he eventually faced the direction of the empire. Supporting or protecting Luther was not only officially prohibited from reading or printing his writings. Charles V guaranteed Luther's personal safety for an unexpected attendance, giving Luther the last 21 days to escape.

However, Luther still had a glimmer of hope. It was the Prince who had supported him from the beginning. Luther was kidnapped by soldiers in the forest on his way back, which was a play devised by Prince Frederick III to secretly protect Luther. Under the protection of Frederick III, Luther spent time in prison in a castle in the mountains. For over a hundred years to come, the necessary writings for Europe were just beginning as the Reformation of religion was just starting.

천주교와 개신교는 왜 갈라졌을까?

역사 연구자와 서양사의 다양한 주제들에 대해 함께 이야기를 나누는 공간입니다

함께하는 세계사

종교개혁 이전의 비판과 존 위클리프의 역할

교황의 부패와 종교적 관행에 대한 비판은 마틴 루터 이전에도 존재했으며, 14세기 중반에는 신학자 존 위클리프가 중요한 인물이었습니다.

위클리프는 교황의 부패에 이의를 제기했을 뿐만 아니라 성경적 근거가 부족하다는 이유로 면죄부와 성체성사에 대해서도 의문을 제기했습니다.

인쇄술의 발명은 위클리프와 루터의 비판의 영향력 차이에 결정적인 역할을 했고, 루터의 사상이 더욱 빠르게 확산될 수 있었습니다.

면죄부 판매가 마르틴 루터의 95개 논제에 미친 영향

알브레히트 폰 브란덴부르크는 교황과의 금융 거래를 통해 면죄부를 판매할 수 있었고, 수익의 절반은 성 베드로 대성당 건설에 사용되었습니다.

면죄부 판매에 분노한 마르틴 루터는 95개 논제를 교회 문에 못 박고 학문적 토론을 요구하며 이 관행에 이의를 제기했습니다.

루터의 95개 논제는 교황이 성경의 내용을 따라야 한다고 주장하면서 성경과 관련된 교황의 권위에 대한 사회적 논쟁을 촉발시켰습니다.

마르틴 루터의 반항과 팸플릿 전쟁

교황은 루터의 성경 비판을 비난하고 그를 로마로 보내려 했지만 프레데릭 왕자가 그를 보호하면서 정치적, 종교적 갈등이 촉발되었습니다.

루터가 자신의 견해를 철회하지 않자 그의 보호자는 루터의 신병 인도를 요구했고, 루터는 이에 맞섰습니다.

그는 인쇄물을 전략적으로 사용하여 자신의 신념을 옹호하고 팜플렛 전쟁을 촉발시켰으며 오직 은혜, 오직 믿음, 오직 성경을 장려했습니다.

교황은 루터에게 자신의 신념을 철회할 것을 요구했고, 결국 파문으로 이어졌습니다.

루터의 파문은 신성 로마 제국에서의 추방을 의미했지만 일부 통치자들은 이에 반대했습니다.

루터는 자신의 안전을 보장해야 했던 카를 5세 앞에 홀로 나타나 자신의 저술과 신념에 대해 심문을 받았고, 이에 대한 답변을 고려할 시간을 달라고 요청했습니다.

양심의 자유를 위한 마르틴 루터의 입장

마르틴 루터는 성경에 의해 틀렸다는 것이 증명되지 않는 한 자신의 주장을 굽히지 않았고, 이는 양심의 자유의 시작을 알린 사건입니다.

금지된 행동이었지만 프레데릭 3세의 비밀스러운 보호를 받으며 종교개혁이 시작될 수 있었습니다.

루터의 입장과 왕자의 지원은 유럽 종교 개혁의 초기 단계에서 결정적인 역할을 했습니다.